The Lava
Etna’s lava is basaltic in composition, characterized by high levels of iron and magnesium and low silica content, which gives it relatively low viscosity. During eruptions, the lava can flow at varying speeds depending on its temperature and viscosity, typically ranging between 1,100 and 1,200°C. Etna’s eruptions are often strombolian or effusive in nature, with lava emerging from the main craters or from lateral fissures of the volcano, forming lava flows and scoria cones. These lava flows are extensively studied for their ability to rapidly reshape the landscape due to the large volumes of magma periodically emitted, as well as for their distinctive physicochemical properties that make them more fluid than other types of lava, such as andesitic lava.
The Caves
The caves of Mount Etna are mainly volcanic in origin and form during the cooling of lava flows. The most common are lava tubes, which develop when the outer surface of a lava flow solidifies while molten magma continues to move inside; once the flow ceases, an empty conduit remains. These caves often display characteristic features such as smooth walls, arched ceilings, and secondary structures like lava stalactites and stalagmites. From a scientific perspective, they are important environments for studying volcanic processes, magma cooling dynamics, and underground microclimatic conditions, which are often stable and characterized by high relative humidity.
The Forest
Etna’s forests represent a complex mountain ecosystem that develops along a wide altitudinal gradient, influenced by climatic conditions and the volcanic nature of the soils. At lower elevations, evergreen Mediterranean species dominate, while higher up there are broadleaf forests such as oaks and chestnuts, followed by stands of Calabrian pine (Pinus nigra subsp. calabrica). At the highest altitudes, pioneer vegetation adapted to extreme conditions prevails. The soils, derived from volcanic materials, are generally rich in minerals but subject to instability and continuous renewal due to eruptions. From an ecological perspective, these forests are important for biodiversity, hosting numerous endemic species and specific adaptations to variable environmental conditions, such as resistance to fire and drought.
The Vineyards
Etna’s vineyards represent an agricultural system of significant scientific interest, developed on young volcanic soils rich in minerals such as iron, potassium, and magnesium. These soils, which are well-drained and continuously renewed, strongly influence the physiological characteristics of the grapevine (Vitis vinifera) and the chemical composition of the grapes. The vineyards are distributed along a wide altitudinal gradient, often between 400 and 1,000 meters, where temperature variations between day and night promote the accumulation of aromatic and phenolic compounds. From an agronomic and ecological perspective, Etna’s vineyards are an example of adaptation to dynamic environmental conditions, characterized by unstable soils, volcanic activity, and heterogeneous microclimates, contributing to the production of wines with distinctive sensory profiles.
La Mappa Antica
La Mappa Moderna
The Nature (Fauna)
Etna’s fauna is influenced by a strong altitudinal gradient and a wide variety of habitats, ranging from Mediterranean environments to mountain forests and lava fields. This ecological heterogeneity supports high biodiversity, with species adapted to variable climatic conditions and young volcanic substrates. The fauna includes mammals, birds, reptiles, and numerous invertebrates, many of which play key roles in local ecosystem balance, such as controlling insect populations and dispersing seeds.
Main species of Etna’s fauna:
- Vulpes vulpes (red fox): an opportunistic predator found across different habitats.
- Martes martes (European pine marten): a forest species associated with mature woodlands.
- Felis silvestris (European wildcat): rare and elusive, linked to wooded areas.
- Aquila chrysaetos (golden eagle): apex raptor in mountainous zones.
- Buteo buteo (common buzzard): widespread raptor in open and forested areas.
- Corvus corax (common raven): highly adaptable species in rocky and volcanic landscapes.
- Hyla intermedia (Italian tree frog): amphibian associated with moist environments and riparian vegetation.
- Hierophis viridiflavus (western whip snake): snake species common in open and semi-wooded habitats.
The Science
Mount Etna is a large basaltic stratovolcano located in a tectonic setting influenced by subduction and rifting, characterized by some of the most persistent eruptive activity in the world. Its magmatic dynamics are dominated by relatively fluid basaltic magma, which favors both effusive and explosive eruptions.
Eruptive activity is mainly concentrated at the summit area (central craters) and along lateral fracture systems, which can open rapidly on the volcano’s flanks. Summit eruptions are often strombolian or sub-Plinian in nature, with intermittent explosions and lava fountains producing columns of gas and pyroclasts. Lateral eruptions, by contrast, are typically effusive and generate extensive lava flows that can quickly reach inhabited areas.
From a volcanological perspective, Etna is a highly dynamic system subject to frequent variations in internal magma pressure, which drive the alternation between degassing phases, explosivity, and continuous lava emission. This complexity makes the volcano a key natural laboratory for studying basaltic eruptive processes and their temporal evolution.
List of the main eruptive activities of Mount Etna over the past hundred years
- 1928 – Lava flow that destroyed the town of Mascali.
- 1942 – Effusive eruption with lava flows from the summit craters.
- 1947 – Explosive activity and lava flows on the eastern flank.
- 1950–1951 – Eruption with significant summit and lateral lava flows.
- 1971 – Major lateral eruption with destruction of infrastructure and changes in the volcano’s morphology.
- 1981 – Eruption on the northern flank with rapid lava flows.
- 1983 – Long-lasting lateral eruption, with attempts to divert lava flows.
- 1991–1993 – One of the longest eruptions of the century, threatening Zafferana Etnea.
- 2001 – Lateral eruption with fissure opening and explosive activity.
- 2002–2003 – Intense explosive activity and lava flows on the eastern and northern flanks.
- 2004–2005 – Effusive eruptions with new lateral fissures.
- 2006 – Explosive episodes and lava flows from summit and lateral vents.
- 2008–2009 – Prolonged lateral eruption on the eastern flank.
- 2011–2013 – Frequent strombolian activity and lava emissions from the summit craters.
- 2014–2015 – Paroxysmal eruptions with lava fountains.
- 2017 – Explosive episodes and phreatomagmatic activity.
- 2018 – Lateral eruption with seismic swarms and lava flows.
- 2020–2021 – Series of very intense summit paroxysms.
- 2022–2023 – Persistent strombolian activity at the summit craters.
- 2024–2025 – Intermittent eruptive episodes and summit explosive activity.
